Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have an exposition of the theory that led to them and of the assumptions underlying the theory. Just as conclusions must be grounded in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework. A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more variables Kerlinger, ; Krathwohl, Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research at times even the taste and preference of committee members, particularly the Chair.
The practice of using hypotheses was derived from using the scientific method in social science inquiry. They have philosophical advantages in statistical testing, as researchers should be and tend to be conservative and cautious in their statements of conclusions Armstrong, Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements. Literary alternative— a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected, stated in terms of theoretical constructs.
In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will show. Operational alternative— Similar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified. Be prepared to interpret any possible outcomes with respect to the questions or hypotheses. Questions and hypotheses are testable propositions deduced and directly derived from theory except in grounded theory studies and similar types of qualitative inquiry.
Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader.
Be excruciatingly consistent in your use of terms. If appropriate, use the same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses. The Design--Methods and Procedures. All research is plagued by the presence of confounding variables the noise that covers up the information you would like to have. Confounding variables should be minimized by various kinds of controls or be estimated and taken into account by randomization processes Guba, In the design section, indicate.
Be aware of possible sources of error to which your design exposes you. You will not produce a perfect, error free design no one can. However, you should anticipate possible sources of error and attempt to overcome them or take them into account in your analysis.
Moreover, you should disclose to the reader the sources you have identified and what efforts you have made to account for them. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity— the extent to which the interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may be generalized to other situations with other people Shavelson, Sampling is critical to external validity —the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to people or situations other than those observed in the study.
To generalize validly the findings from a sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population according to one of several probability sampling plans.
By a probability sample is meant that the probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. All probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage Shavelson, In experimentation, two distinct steps are involved. Random selection— participants to be included in the sample have been chosen at random from the same population.
Define the population and indicate the sampling plan in detail. Random assignment— participants for the sample have been assigned at random to one of the experimental conditions. Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validity— the extent to which the outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than from other variables not systematically treated.
Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be constructed Shavelson, Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative. When a sample is drawn out of convenience a nonprobability sample , rationale and limitations must be clearly provided.
Outline the instruments you propose to use surveys, scales, interview protocols, observation grids. If instruments have previously been used, identify previous studies and findings related to reliability and validity. If instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will follow to develop and test their reliability and validity.
In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly essential. Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs, this is a crucial step in the proposal. Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be used or the interview protocol to be followed. Also include sample items in the description of the instrument.
For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in administering and following up the survey to obtain a high response rate. Data Collection. Outline the general plan for collecting the data. Answered by Editage Insights on 29 Jul, Resources for authors and journals. Upvote this Answer 7 Comment. Answer this question. Ask a new question. This content belongs to the Conducting Research Stage Conducting research is the first and most exciting step in a researcher's journey.
No Yes. Show comments. Follow this Question. What is scientific problem statement. The first step to formulate a problem statement is to identify what your problem is.
Then, decide what you would like the outcome of your problem to be. Lastly, combine the problem with your desired outcome to form your statement. A problem is what exists when there is a difference between the current situation and the desired one. The difference is that decision making usually come first than problem solving. Log in. Dissertations and Theses. Mission Statements. The Difference Between.
Study now. See Answer. Best Answer. Study guides. Dissertations and Theses 20 cards. What do you revise in global revision. What is one purpose of ellipses. What is the purpose of a topic sentence. What are parenthetical expressions. Essays 23 cards. What is a thesis statement. What is a pronoun. What is a concluding statement.
Essays 22 cards. Composing a professional sponsorship proposal letter can be approached as a series of 6 distinct steps:. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search. Press ESC to cancel. Skip to content Home What is rationale of the study? Ben Davis June 1, What is rationale of the study? How do you write an introduction to a rationale? What should be included in a rationale?
What is Introduction and rationale? What is the difference between objective and rationale?
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